As the Industrial Revolution progressed and transformed production methods it created a wage labor group in Europe (KOT, 692). Karl Marx claimed that under all capitalist situations, misery defined workers’ conditions; however, he is incorrect because living and working conditions, wages and their rights significantly improved in following years. This study seeks to demonstrate the improvement of workers’ situation focusing on the years from 1815 to 1918. Workers as used in the study refers to those laboring in urban areas in factories, mines and other manual labor (Costanzo, 1 28, 09). Instead of receiving a regular salary they are paid by piece work, by day or by wages (Costanzo, 1 28, 09). Examining the topic requires considering early working class conditions first, evaluating ensuing developments directly affecting their lives.
As early laborers migrated and found employment within the industrial economy, they faced squalid living conditions, difficult working conditions, low wages, and challenging familial situations. In the 1840’s, a French physician documented some worker’s living quarters noting crude, dirty, disorderly, sparsely furnished spaces with filthy air and grimy inhabitants (Villerme, in KOT, 771). Germinal, a film about a French family and its mining community provides valuable insight into worker’s lives during this period (Berri, 1993). Although this film is not a true primary source and therefore not as reliable, it received official sanction for use as primary evidence. Before the 1830’s, work days often lasted longer than twelve hours for both adults and children (KOT, 697). An official British report on specific mining areas chronicles women often worked with the men performing the same taxing labor in underground, tight, constrained spaces (“Women Miners”, in KOT, 377). Wages provided meager sustenance. As seen in Germinal, the Maheu family barely earned enough and often had to beg for charity and bread (Berri, 1993). Early workers often did not have much power since they could not unionize and many could not vote. Thus the working class experienced dismal circumstances in essential areas of life.
Although early laborers’ situation proved miserable, their circumstances changed over time in living standards, work environments, earnings and family life. Within each said area changes brought improvements, alleviating their misery.
During the mid 18th century increasing societal awareness instigated initiatives directly affecting living conditions. As the filth found in cities developed health hazards preventive measures were taken (KOT, 769-770). The cities of Paris and London installed new sewer systems; London also developed enclosed gas and water carriers (KOT, 770). New sewer systems reduce the risk of contracting diseases through contamination and developments such as London’s latter innovations facilitate and improve daily living. Sanitation endeavors and medicinal developments during the period elevated life expectancy (Costanzo, 2,6,09). Living quarters changed as well. British, French and German authorities encouraged working class housing. Housing production, in England, came through economic legislation and government construction, in France, through a positive financial incentive and in Germany through local government efforts (KOT, 772). Companies began developing ways to offer housing for lower classes (KOT, 772). The Maheu family lived in company housing which offered two floors, a kitchen and rooms (Berri, 1993). Access to cheaper and better living quarters greatly enhances economic and physical conditions releasing some funds for other items and offering protection from the elements. New construction also provides cleaner environments. Thus early 18th century living conditions faced new horizons with sanitation developments and housing initiatives.
Along with changing living conditions, work situations faced positive improvements. As early as 1833, Britain passed the English Factory Act of 1833 (KOT, 697). Factories could hire no one younger than nine, schedule nine year olds to thirteen year olds only nine hours of work and limit to twelve hour work days for the other employees (KOT, 697). Also, employers were to provide their hired children with some education (KOT, 697). By 1847, Britain cut the twelve hour work days to ten hours per day (KOT, 697). These enactments protected adults, adolescents and children from exploitive hours. Passing laws to allow inspectors and medical professionals into businesses and homes, Britain, France, and future Germany worked to improve its laborers’ work and health conditions (KOT, 770). With authorities regulating employer activities work gained a protective ally against exigent conditions. Germany in the late 1800’s enacted health and accident insurance laws along with arranging for retirement and permanent injury provisions (KOT, 785). In similar fashion Britain passed the National Insurance Act of 1911 providing, “unemployment benefits and health care” (KOT, 784). Such provisions ameliorated worker’s possible financial troubles in time of physical or economic downturns. Hence as the century progressed and a new one dawned workers saw protective measures addressing hours, conditions, and providing for difficult scenarios.
With industrial development and progress, laborers received economic benefits which brought opportunities. Within the factory labor force, wage rates allowed families to live off one income (KOT, 697). From 1850 to 1900 real wages rose by thirty percent (Costanzo, 2, 6,09). With more money laborers could obtain new material comforts. Writing in 1907, E. Levasseur’s piece on Parisian department stores notes the buying power of classes below the middle class enabled their growth (Levasseur, in KOT, 766). Such an analysis indicates at least some workers could purchase more goods. A new social group emerged described as lower middle class whose members often rose from the labor class (KOT, 766). Though Adelheid Popp’s autobiography revealed early struggles, with time she gained a job as a publications’ editor in Austria (“A Factory Girl: Countering the Stereotypes, in KOT, 379). Her story reveals a significant improvement of opportunity and condition. Thus higher wages introduced new possibilities for the working class as it improved its financial state.
With workers’ conditions improving, the class also received significant power through unions and the ballot. In the early 18th century, striking was prohibited. However Britain, France and Germany legalized or allowed unions to work by the end of the century. Strikes increased even into the 1900s (KOT, 782). Although such reactions may be used argue the class continued in misery, one must realize gaining the right to unionize signified progress. Also, despite gaining this right, the majority of workers did not get involved with unions (KOT, 782). Additionally the class gained direct political leverage as several European states such as Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Germany, granted all men the right to vote in the late 18th and early 19th century (KOT, 782). Britain also expanded the group eligible to vote (KOT, 782). Though some may point out the increase of strikes, this alone does not indicate workers continued in misery. Indeed they did gain the right to unionize and cast their vote.
In conclusion, Marx’s broad statement categorizing the labor class in terms of complete misery at a constant state overlooks the improvements the class experienced. Although initially dismal, living and working conditions, wages and family structures in the working class progressed with time. The class also gained the power to join and voice their dissent through strikes and eventually through the ballot. Horizons were dawning for the working class.
Bibliography
Costanzo, Susan E. Introduction to Western Civilization: 1713-Present. Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA, January & February 2009.
Germinal, VHS. Directed by Claude Berri. Burbank CA: Columbia TriStar Video, 1994. (1993)
Kagan, Donald, Steven Ozment, and Frank M. Turner. The Western Heritage: Volume 2: Since 1648. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007.
Marx, Karl and Frederick Engels. The Communist Manifesto. New York: International Publishers, 1948, 3-31. (1848)
Remarque, Erich Maria. All Quiet on the Western Front. Translated by A.W. Wheen. New York: Fawcett Crest, 1982. (1928)
