Lessons from Ravi

At a recent event hosting Ravi Zacharias, he addressed the lessons learned from two ancient Israelite kings. Manasseh and Josiah.

2 Kings 21:1-2: "Manasseh was twelve years old when he became king....He did evil in the sight of the Lord, according to the abominations of the nations whom the Lord dispossessed before the sons of Israel."

This evil king, offered his own children up to Canaanite gods following the ways of his surrounding culture. So often and putrid became the practice that the valley in which it was practiced was named "Place of Hell."

It is through its actions with its own children that a civilization testifies to its own character. Sacrificing children to the gods revealed the depth of Manasseh's wickedness. Our own nation offers its unborn to the goddess of "choice," "personal freedom" and pragmatism.

In contrast, Josiah, a youth when crowned king did right in the sight of God. During his reign the "book of the law" was discovered by a high priest. (2 Kings 22:8). He ordered the expulsion of idolatrous materials found within the temple. 2 Kings 23:4"to bring out of the temple of the Lord all the vessels that were made for Baal, for Asherah, and for all the host of heaven; and he burned them outside Jerusalem in the fields of the Kidron, and carried their ashes to Bethel."

The Asherah is linked to the Canaanite goddess who acts as a female partner to Baal in the Canaanite religion. The host of heaven implies a pantheon of other gods worshiped at the time. All such foreign polytheism is removed in favor of worshiping Yahweh as the Most High God and the only one to be worshiped. Such worship was distinctly unique to Israel.
It is through the Word of God that one finds the power to change. Additionally, it resuces the culture from the tyranny of the immediate. The nation need not respond to current secular philosophies.
Manasseh and Josiah provide lessons for our present post-modern culture.

The Reason

"He who refuses to learn from History, is forced to repeat its mistakes" quoted at Ravi Zacharias in Conversation, Vancouver CA.

Our Heritage

They arrived in 1620...





Despite a harsh winter, they gave thanks to the Lord for saving them and bringing a bountiful harvest...


They did not give up, rather, they remained in this untamed land....

Dating Biblical Authorship

Many critical biblical scholars and historians of ancient Israel connect the Deuteronomistic History to the book of Deuteronomy, arguing they were composed at roughly the same time. How does that conclusion influence how scholars interpret the content of both biblical sources? How does that interpretation influence the interpretation of the archaeological record, particularly for Israel's early history (pre-monarchy)?

When the Deuteronomistic history is linked in time to the book of Deuteronomy, it establishes an early date for the occurrences within the books. If the authorship occurred at the same time, the historical content will be far greater than if composed at a later date. The internal consistency would be greater since less time has elapsed to allow for human forgetfulness or changes to the text. Finkelstein adhering to a late authorship view of these books believes they reflect the political and religious ideology of their time while containing historical memories of Israel’s past. Thus the message is modified to the current political message and the ancient memories are tailored for that message. The text thus must be viewed with a critical eye to discern between ideology and true historical fact. The range of viewpoints is wide in the field. The extreme would say the, “Bible is a Hellenistic composition with (almost) no historical value, and that the entire "history" of Israel, from the patriarchs, through the exodus, the conquest, the monarchy and the exile and restoration, never happened.” Such a viewpoint dramatically affects the treatment of the text and the consideration of it its validity.

If the text contains true historical value, then archeological finds should corroborate the accounts. Those items found would be viewed through the lens of an earlier chronological dating system. Finds would also work to prove the Biblical stories. Kitchen and Hendel examine items such as the Mari and Nuzi tablets to corroborate the social milieu depicted in the Bible. If these items confirm a similarity between early near Eastern culture and the Biblical text, then there is room to argue for ancient authorship. Finds like the Merenptah Stela are interpreted differently to represent different times and different models of Israel’s history: either as a nomadic group or closer to an organized state just before the Monarchy. Minimalists such as Thomas Thompson who adhere to a late authorship date and Jan Van Seters interpret any data with a critical eye. Thompson casts doubts on the Tel Dan Inscription’s reference to, “the house of David” saying it does not mean David was a historical ancestor. Depending on the presuppositions about the Biblical text, the interpretations for the archeological findings differ.

Footnotes:
Yigael Levin, Hebrew Discussion Board: Brief definition of "minimalism" and "maximalism," http://www.wwuheiser.com/minimalmaximal.pdf.
Israel Finkelstein and Amihai Mazar, The Quest for the Historical Israel, ed. Brian B. Schmidt (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2007).
Yigael Levin, Hebrew Discussion Board: Brief definition of "minimalism" and "maximalism," http://www.wwuheiser.com/minimalmaximal.pdf.
Michael Heiser, Ancient Israel.
Michael Heiser, Ancient Israel.

Patriarchs: Historical or Legendary? Pt. 1

Imagine…

As the Constitution’s signatures still sat wet, the question arose amongst the auspicious Congress, “Does not this new nation need a historical background as a foundation for the new Republic?” Indeed, the need for heroic figures and a common cultural background to unite and inspire the thirteen legislatures and their people groups so aroused the writers leading them to assign Thomas Jefferson with the task of creating a national history. Hence the account originated: of a brave Italian explorer, Christopher Columbus, lineage of the Separatists and Moravians who followed the reformed faith of Martin Luther and the courageous Miles Standish and Thomas Hooker. Indeed, contemplated the Congress upon reviewing the historical and detailed nature of Jefferson’s work, such a “history”, though fictional, embodied the spirit of freedom and bravery to be emulated and found in this new land and home. Thus in further legal documents and popular Gazette reports, the Congress promoted the created heritage to the American populous.

Imagine such a scenario. Imagine it truly relates the origins of our national heritage. What pride would you take in following, honoring and imitating such a respectable…but fictional legacy? The scenario illustrates the position of the minimalist school on Israel’s heritage portrayed in the Biblical account. Israel Finkelstein writes on the minimalist viewpoint,
It [Old Testament] is a largely fictional composition motivated by the theology of the time of its compilation, which occurred centuries after the alleged events took place….it contains only vague and quite unreliable information about the origins and early history of Israel…. the authors…stitched together old myths, folktales, imaginary records, legendary narratives, and a few memories of historical facts…into a single saga of apostasy and redemption.
In other words, the authors wrote up a history with a specific ideological bent for political purposes. Such a viewpoint targets the Pentateuch’s veracity, a portion containing Abrahams, Jacobs and Isaacs’ stories, pivotal to the Biblical chronicle and theology. Thus with archaeology’s emergence, the Bible’s historicity has been challenged. Its historical portions and accounts of the Patriarchs remain highly critiqued due to a lack of archeological confirmation. With textual criticism, the dating of Patriarchal narratives has raised questions on authorship and date composition along with questioning the reliability and possibility of historical data and the accounts’ oral transmission. Such doubts engendered the hypothesis that the biblical account was constructed during the Persian or Hellenistic periods in an attempt to create a history and present an ideology. Such challenges and hypotheses demand a response. While the Scriptures demonstrate certain literary styles such techniques do not invalidate the content. While scholars doubt the possibility for accurate oral transmission, it is a viable option in a culture accustomed to its practice and especially when a sovereign God directs the transmission. The archeological field contains a variety of arguments for or against the Patriarchs’ existence but contains enough data to maintain their historicity. Overarching each of these considerations is the theological testimony for and dependence on the historical nature of these biblical characters. This response will address theories on the Bible’s literary genres, the debate and evidence regarding the Patriarchal narratives’ historicity and the theological implications of either viewpoint.

Announcing....

I am pleased to announce a new revolutionary Logos Bible Software product: Logos 4.

Our company has worked tirelessly to recreate the technology for its product: a Christian library with powerful search capabilities. As an employee, I've had the priviledge of using Logos 4 and have fallen in love with the product. While reading the text in Libronix was okay, reading on Logos 4 is a pleasure. The interface is gorgeous with light blue and white tones which prove soothing to the eyes and aesthetically pleasing. The new homepage displays book review clippings or blogpost snippets enticing you onto deeper studies and demonstrating the information within your grasp with simply a search. Researching with Logos 4 saves an inestimable amount of time. Writing papers for class is joyfully facilitated by this beautiful and effective research guide. Please save yourself the pain of library searching and obtain a copy of Logos 4. Visit our website at: http://www.logos.com/4.

Consider...

Imagine.
As the Constitution’s signatures sat still wet the question arose amongst the auspicious Congress, “Does not this new nation need a historical background as a foundation for the new Republic?” Indeed the need for heroic figures and a common cultural background to unite and inspire the thirteen legislatures and their people groups so aroused the men leading them to assign Thomas Jefferson with the task of creating a national history. Hence came the account of a brave Italian explorer, Christopher Columbus, lineage of the Separatists or Moravians following the reformed faith of Martin Luther and the famous and courageous and Miles Standish and Thomas Hooker. Indeed, contemplated the Congress upon reviewing the historical and detailed nature of Jefferson’s work, such a “history”, though fictional, embodied the spirit of freedom and bravery to be emulated and found in this new land and home. Thus in further legal articles and popular reports, the Congress promoted the created heritage to the American populous.
Imagine such a scenario. Imagine it truly relates the origins of our national heritage. What pride would you take in following, honoring and imitating such a respectable…but fictional legacy?

Levirate Marriage: Addressing its Cultural and Theological Complications

(Please excuse any theological mistakes, I do not mean this to be the final word, simply some initial thoughts and my current understanding of the issues. May God's name and Word be held in high esteem and His Word stands supreme over any of what I might express here, this is what I believe at my current understanding)

In Ruth 4:13 the text reads, “So Boaz took Ruth, and she became his wife. And he went in to her … and she bore a son.” While this may appear to recount a regular marriage, it really symbolizes the contested legal tradition of levirate marriage. Levirate marriage in the Bible, as defined by E. W. Davies, “prescribed that a widow whose deceased husband had died without male heir marry one of his brothers, presumably the next eldest one who was himself unmarried.” Complications in practicing levirate marriage arise if the next brother is already married. If this man married his sister-in-law would he be engaging in adultery and polygamy? Does the Bible contradict itself and sanction such practices? Through a theological viewpoint, this study seeks to answer the questions raised. In Genesis, God designed and established marriage as a union between one man and woman who become “one flesh.” The same God instituted the Mosaic Law thereby sanctioning levirate marriage and providing legal provisions for its enforcement. In considering the practice, it appears polygamy is allowed; however, God from the beginning in Genesis and through his final revelation in the New Testament indicates marriage is between one man and woman. To present this argument an examination of levirate law in the Scriptures, a consideration of foundational preconceptions, the evaluation of adultery in relation to the law and the consideration of polygamy is required.

In examining levirate law within the Bible, several primary passages surface presenting its legal stipulation, its practice on Old and New Testament times. In Deuteronomy 25:5, the law reads, “If brothers dwell together, and one of them dies and has no son, the wife of the dead man shall not be married outside the family … Her husband’s brother shall go in to her and take her as his wife and perform the duty of a husband’s brother to her. And the first son whom she bears shall succeed to the name of his dead brother, that his name may not be blotted out of Israel.” Thus if a husband dies without heir, his wife is to marry a brother and produce an heir to preserve the family name. Later, the book of Ruth describes Boaz acting upon the law and marrying Mahlon’s wife, Ruth. The practice seems to continue through the time of Jesus, near late 100 B.C. and 1st century A.D, because certain religious leaders quoted this practice while asking him a trick question. The tense used in their question, “If a man dies having no children, his brother must marry the widow and raise up children for his brother” reveals levirate marriage remained in practice. Jesus’ answer in Matthew 22 does not negate the law, rather it explains a theological truth which eliminates the possible problem of multiple husbands for one woman in heaven. Thus from the early Old Testament law, to its application in Israelite society, to its mention and affirmation in the New Testament Jewish culture, levirate law plays a viable role within the Bible.

In determining whether levirate marriage constituted adultery and promoted or allowed polygamy, some definitions must be given. To define the difference between marriage and adultery the study utilizes the Judeo-Christian definition of marriage based on Yahweh’s revelation in Genesis 2:25. Christ, in discussing divorce and marriage quoted Genesis 1:27 and 2:25, verses describing a union of two who become one; additionally, Jesus bases the legal binding of the two upon God who “has joined [them] together.” This union, designed from the beginning continued to be approved and legitimized by God. Conversely, adultery is seen as separating this union and is specifically prohibited in Exodus 20:14. From this understanding of marriage the question then arises, whether levirate marriage was adultery by modifying the latter marriage model.

Given the established definition of marriage and adultery, it is critical to examine levirate marriage within its cultural and theological context. The Bible describes a levirate marriage occurrence before the establishment of the Mosaic Law. In Genesis 38, Judah’s son Er dies leaving Tamar his wife and no male heir; consequently, Judah commands Onan to, “perform the duty of a brother-in-law to her, and raise up offspring for your brother.” Thus before God establishes His law for Israel, the patriarchal family was aware of and practiced levirate marriage. The Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible notes, “Levirate marriage was also known to the Canaanites, Assyrians, and Hittites.” In the former passage, Judah had married a Canaanite woman and was therefore in contact with the Canaanite culture. If levirate marriage was indeed known amongst the cultures surrounding Jacob’s family, the practice possibly infiltrated the budding Israeli culture. If the practice emerged from a pagan culture, could it mistakenly have been incorporated into Israel’s legal code? Michael D. Matlock writes, “As with many of the Deuteronomic laws, this law does not create a new institution but codifies an old one.” He goes on to argue that chapter five with its copy of the 10 commandments is an outline for the following chapters, 6 through 26. If so, the clause on levirate marriage falls under the tenth commandment, “And you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife. And you shall not desire your neighbor’s house….” Matlock argues that a levir (brother of the deceased) actually fulfills the tenth commandment when he performs his duty to his sister-in-law because he will withstand a financial loss as the widow’s wealth passes on to the male engendered in their union. By fulfilling his levir’s duty he does not covet the widow’s economic wealth, rather sacrificially helps perpetuate his brother’s lineage. If Matlock’s argument is accepted, it is understood that the Mosaic Law not only accepted levirate marriage but also mandated its fulfillment.

Coming with the presupposition that the Scriptures are divinely inspired, one believes the Mosaic Law is from God. By including levirate marriage in the Law, God grants it a legal standing and justifies its fulfillment. When Boaz sought to perform the duty of the levir, he went before elders of the city and conducted the transaction before them. His union to Ruth was done in full compliance with the established authorities and the divinely inspired legal code.

Despite these arguments, another complication arises as other sections of the Mosaic Law seem to condemn the relations found in levirate marriage. Leviticus 18:16 reads, “You shall not uncover the nakedness of your brother’s wife” here, levirate marriage is seemingly prohibited. However, levirate marriage played an important role in protecting widows and maintaining the paternal lineage. Matlock notes an economic and societal reason for the practice, “The third and final concern of the levirate marriage is providing for a widow and securing the respect she gains from having a son. In the societal structures of ancient Israel, the levirate law is one way of helping a widow maintain her well-being.” Additionally, Matlock points out how levirate law maintained familial land within Israel: the importance for this act rests on the land’s value in God’s saving plan for Israel. As Charles P. Baylis notes, from Ruth’s levirate marriage, “descended David … the one from whom came the promised Messiah.” Jesus Christ, the Messiah, descended from Ruth and Boaz. The Levitical law warns against incest for its own sake. While levirate marriage could be defined as incest, its practice served the purposes explained above. Through the procedural steps outlined in Deuteronomy 25: 5-6, the Mosaic Law established a context for “incest.” Its context offered a redefinition for the action making the union viable in the sight of the law and it’s Author.

While levirate marriage is not legally adultery, does it validate or promote polygamy? Within the biblical biographies cases of polygamy emerge: Jacob with Leah and Rachel or King David and his multiple wives. The New Bible Dictionary discussing the seventh commandment on adultery states, “Relations between a married man and an unmarried woman do not qualify as adultery. Hence polygamy is not automatically excluded by this commandment, although in practice it was rare in OT times.” Under his specific definition on adultery, the author feels polygamy is not directly condemned. Charles Hodge similarly argues the Mosaic Law does not condemn the practice; however, Hodges goes further to explain the nature of God’s law. The law is formulated for man in their specific environment and existence; thus, God can change or update the regulations. Certainly such concepts appear inconsistent with God’s revealed character, yet the Scriptures illustrate the concept through the replacement of the Old Covenant with the New Covenant. The Old Covenant provided a preliminary arrangement used to symbolize and prepare the Jews for future developments. The same progression is seen with marriage. Christ notes, “For in the resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven.” Marriage is an earthly institution which serves to demonstrate Christ’s relationship with His redeemed church (and certainly the natural means to procreation) but will be unnecessary in Heaven. In applying this concept to Old Testament polygamy, one might view it as a phase in God’s revelation. It can be argued that polygamy is not God’s original design and despite its presence within Israeli culture it was not encouraged. Alfred Edersheim notes:
In reference to both these [polygamy and divorce], however, it must be remembered that they were temporary concessions to “the hardness” of the people’s heart. For, not only must the circumstances of the times and the moral state of the Jewish and of neighboring nations be taken into account, but there were progressive stages of spiritual development….Suffice it, that “from the beginning it was not so,” nor yet intended to be so in the end…. Moreover, it is impossible to read the Old, and still more the New Testament without gathering from it the conviction, that polygamy was not the rule but the rare exception, so far as the people generally were concerned.
Thus, God through the Law established regulations which His people could work with at the time but with further revelation He unfolded more aspects of His holy will. In one way God revealed His original intent for marriage through His creation of Adam and Eve, by depicting a monogamous relationship in the Song of Solomon and finally stipulating the original intent through Christ and the Apostles.

To conclude, levirate marriage within Israeli culture raises important theological and cultural concerns. While Mosaic Law prohibits relations between brother and sister-in-law, levirate marriage provides a legal exception to preserve familial lineage and provide for widows. God desires to preserve the Israeli bloodlines for the purpose of engendering the Messiah. When asked about levirate marriage, Christ does not condemn the practice but does denounce adultery; therefore, it can be gathered that levirate marriage was not considered adultery. On the subject of polygamy, God led Israel through stages of revelation and eventually eliminated the practice in the final revelation stage through Christ’s definition of marriage and the epistles. Thus levirate marriage and its implications fit within a theological and cultural framework during God’s preliminary revelation. Christ provided the final revelation, “Have you not read that he who created them from the beginning made them male and female…. So they are no longer two but one flesh. What therefore God has joined together, let not man separate.”

Bibliography
The Holy Bible : English Standard Version. Wheaton: Standard Bible Society, 2001.

E. W. Davies, “Inheritance Rights and the Hebrew Levirate Marriage,” VT 31 (1981): 257–68; D. W. Manor, “A Brief History of Levirate Marriage as It Relates to the Bible,” Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin (NS) 20 (1982): 33–52.
Edersheim, Alfred. Sketches of Jewish Social Life in the Days of Christ. Bellingham, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 2003.
Baylis, Charles P. "Naomi in the book of Ruth in light of the Mosaic covenant." Bibliotheca sacra 161, no. 644 (October 2004): 413-431. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 6, 2009).
Carson, D. A. New Bible Commentary : 21st Century Edition. 4th ed. Leicester, England; Downers Grove, Ill., USA: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994.
Hodge, Charles. Systematic Theology. Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1997.
Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1988. 1406.

Matlock, Michael D. "Obeying the First Part of the Tenth Commandment: Applications from the Levirate Marriage Law." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 31, no. 3 (March 2007): 295-310. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed October 6, 2009).
E. W. Davies, “Inheritance Rights and the Hebrew Levirate Marriage,” VT 31 (1981): 257–68; D. W. Manor, “A Brief History of Levirate Marriage as It Relates to the Bible,” Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin (NS) 20 (1982): 33–52.

Thoughts?

In Deuteronomy 25:5, the law reads, “If brothers dwell together, and one of them dies and has no son, the wife of the dead man shall not be married outside the family to a stranger. Her husband’s brother shall go in to her and take her as his wife and perform the duty of a husband’s brother to her. And the first son whom she bears shall succeed to the name of his dead brother, that his name may not be blotted out of Israel.” Thus if a husband dies without heir, his wife is to marry the brother in order to produce an heir who will carry the family name.
What is this practice called? Is this adultery? Thoughts?

What does this Quarter hold?

Amid my Education classes, I will take Ancient Israel, History 390. I am thrilled to learn about such a pivotal culture and land.

Into the Past...

On a trip to the Eastern part of our state, we meet a couple at a local church who'd lived in Paraguay for ten years. Upon noting where they lived, we realized how close they resided on the lake. Sunday evening, some of my family members visited, traveling by boat to their lakeshore home. As the conversation flowed the sunset proceeded steadily setting a limit to the interaction; thus, the delightful couple invited us to return on Tuesday evening.

Hence, tuesday evening, our family loaded into the boat and sailed across the lake mooring at their floating deck. This is their story:


Both were young children living in Communist Russia before WWII. She recalls the brainwashing recieved at school concerning the Communist regime. They could not think for themselves she said, "they thought for us." "It was terrible," she commented, noting the number of Russians who fled the country before the government sealed the borders. "our forefathers" were taken to Siberia, and forced into harsh labor, while the women folk stayed at home with their children working hard as well. Since they both lived in a German colony within Russia the Germans "saved" them during the war: "We say the Lord saved us, but He used the Germans to save us," Mrs.---- added. Due to their German heritage, the invading force took them back into Poland and then Germany where they lived until 1945 when "Germany was defeated."

In 1948, these German families were offered a new life in Paraguay. Apparently a Mennonite church in Canada arranged the voyage and paid the fare. The debt would be repaid once the refugees made a living in their new home. Thus the families traveled on three different boats, each getting smaller until the last was a barge. The barge carried the travelers to a certain spot and from there horses bore them to their new home. These German Mennonites were to create a living out of the bush, yes the jungle of Paraguay. Here the local Indians remained in their tribes living as the famous "Auca" Indians from the Jim Elliot story. The couple met on the ship carrying them across the Atlantic and were married shortly after arriving. "It was nice" she smiled, because all believed the same faith and were of the same culture. Thus their families built a farm from the bush, and when the couple were married, they founded their own. For ten years the couple lived in Paraguay within the German Mennonite community. Apparently the Mennonites had worked greatly amongst these people bringing the Gospel and it's ensuing reforms. Mr.----- learned some Spanish and could communicate with the Natives; however, the locals mixed the German and Spanish languages.
After ten years, the couple with their family managed to migrate to Canada. Their family raised money along with their neighbors to sponsor the immigration. Upon arriving in Canada they established themselves and their family of six.

The couple speak both Russian and German in addition to English. They are a lovely Christian couple with an incredible story to tell.

Excellent Act of Honor, Nobility, and Truth in our Congress

May God be praised....

Oh, my country, listen...

Proving the Bible True

"Much of the minimalist effort has been invested in the claim that David and Solomn-the founders of the Jerusalem Dynasty- are not historical figures. They argued that...they are not mentioned in any extra-biblical texts and should therefore be seen as legendary personalities. This arguement suffered a major blow when the Tel Dan basalt stele was discovered in the mid- 1990s. It comprises several fragments of a triumphal inscription written in Aramaic....It describes from the Aramean perspective, the territorial conflict between Israel and Damascus in the ninth century [B.C.] and records how an Aramean king (Hazael) launched a punishing offensive against his southern enemies...in which-so he claimed-he killed the king of Israel and his ally, the king of the 'House of David' (or bytdwd). This was the first time that the name of "David" was found in any contemporary source outside the Bible.... Moreover, it most probably specified the names of the two later kings-Joram of Israel and Ahaziah of Judah-both of whom are mentioned in the biblical text."

-The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archeology and the History of Early Israel by Isreal Finkelstein and Amihai Mazar. Edited by Brian B. Schmidt. Pg. 14

"The Bible is literature, but to recognize it as such does not settle the question of reference (whether it refers to realities beyond itself, real people, and real events)...."

The Art of Biblical History- V. Phillips Long

Early China and the Outside World

The Gongyang Commentary to the Spring and Autumn Annals, a Confucian text, notes the Qin’s absence from the record lies in their character as barbarians (Lewis, I, 39). From prehistoric China to the Sui dynasty of the late 6th century, the Chinese developed alongside foreign presences which they strove to negate and avoid. Nevertheless, foreign peoples and ideas have induced the rise and fall of Chinese dynasties. Through religion, non-Chinese ideas and characters redirected religious and social beliefs. Through military elements and religious views, foreign winds influenced political, religious, social organization and occupations and cultural elements. Nomadic cultures versus sedentary often impressed more change with Chinese ideas exerting greater power over the latter. Even while often acting as an invisible guiding hand, foreign influences failed to fully redefine core Chinese ways in each of these areas. Without the presence of foreigners in her history Sui China’s characteristics would still mirror core aspects of the early China.

Surrounded by vast tracts of land, China faced the issue of permeable borders throughout her history. The porous boarder allowed for military incursions and warfare equipment and techniques to infiltrate. In prehistoric sites, evidences of warfare emerge. In North China, villages boost earthen walls while in Han-tan in Hopei human remains indicate signs of scalping (Chang, 114-117). While it is not deducible if foreign troops caused the walls to go up or the deaths, Northern China faced constant threats from roaming nomadic tribes during the imperial period. The nomadic attacks shaped the rise and fall of various dynasties. The Zhou, unable to contend with the Rong moved East allowing the Qin to polish its military skills until it defeated the Rong. As a sand grain in an oyster’s shell, the Rong’s presence instigated the development of the Qin enabling them to conquer the diverse Warring States. Later, a combination of warlords and the Xiongnu tribe brought the fall of the Western Jin (Lewis, II, 51). While initially lamentable, the southern flight only augmented the future wealth and prosperity of China with the integration of southern resources. Both examples demonstrate one tendency for the Chinese to flee from forceful tribal groups.

Another typical Chinese response involved integration or adoption of foreign people and ideas. As early as the Shang period, findings of bronze weapons different to typical Shang work show a trend that continued in adopting nomadic weaponry and military force (Lewis, I, 129). Histories from the Han period note the prominent presence of nomadic troops in the army; the Han began, “’using barbarians to control barbarians’”(Lewis, I, 139). Cao, Cao, centuries later, took captured Wuhuan people and formed a solid cavalry corps (Lewis, II, 59). With the policy of resettling conquered nomads within Chinese territory, their presence proved dominant during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. Thus, it can be argued that nomadic groups proved quintessential in shaping China’s history as they caused the Jin’s southern flight and remained a prominent Northern influence. Yet it was not a one way road between the sedentary Chinese culture and the mobile nomadic group. This is seen in the rise of the dual administration. The Murong Xianbei mixed the best of both, using mobile military forces and Chinese political structure (Lewis, II, 74). If seen from the nomadic perspective, the great stable culture to the south absorbed them and influenced their ideas of political administration. Under Tuoba Gui, a tribe, the Northern Wei came into being (Lewis, II, 79-80). It consistently adopted Chinese culture, and moved the capital to Luoyang (Lewis, II 81). The northerner’s mobility did not alter the established Chinese state; rather, the Chinese influenced them to establish roots. While resettling nomads within China almost proved lethal, it eliminated that threat by absorbing their people into the stable Sui and Tang dynasties. Intermarriage being common in these dynasties demonstrates the ultimate control of the Chinese culture upon their northern enemies (Lewis, II, 248).

With their sedentary neighbors in the North, the Chinese succeeded in granting more than they received. Areas of the future Korea gained validation by sending tribute to China (Lewis, I, 151). Brick patterns reflect Chinese influence in modern Southern Korea (Lewis, II, 153). The Japanese culture patterned heavily off their sedentary neighbor (Lewis, II, 155). Thus, China also transmitted important cultural and nation building elements to their neighbors. Sharing with sedentary cultures seemed more feasible than with mobile, militant tribes.

Within the religious realm, the Chinese culture remained stolid to influences until the N & S Dynasties period. Expansion interests as demonstrated in Zhang Qian’s strategic plot to ally with the Wusun and allow the “other countries to the west” to establish political relations and submission opened the door to Central Asia; this became the main artery for Buddhism (Lewis, I, 141; Lewis, II, 204). Notably Dunhuang, where Buddhist translator Kumarajiva lived, was part of the first century trade route and continued through the Han and Tang dynasties (Lewis, I, Map 12; Lewis, II, Map 14, 205). While Buddhism came to dominate much of Chinese religious thought, its success depended on certain Chinese cultural foundations. The interest in “dark studies” opened the door for monks to participate due to their own philosophical capacities (Lewis, II, 205). Buddhism’s teachings resonated with much of Chinese religion and values. The Analects note, “a young man is to be filial within his family”, highlighting the importance of filial piety (Confucius and the Analects, 45). Buddhism accommodated for this value through the ability to sacrifice for ancestors. Prayers attached to a sutra in Dunhuang all contain a plea for family member’s welfare (Dunhuang texts). A Confucian text, Master Xun describes burial places as imitations of their homes to enhance their afterlife; a Shang dynasty tomb in Honan province replete with expensive bronze vessels also indicates a concept of an afterlife; thus, the idea of an afterlife and enhancing the wellbeing of family members constituted an old Chinese tradition (Lewis, I, 189; Chang, 95-96).Valuing family lines extends from prehistoric China where tombs hold groups of men, women and children indicating family based burial (Chang, 116). While Buddhist monks were integral for funerary rites, a similar concept was in place when the shaman were used to conduct divination with oracle bones (Chang, 51). Thus while Buddhism emerged as a foreign religion it integrated easily due to established cultural traditions which resonated with the faith.

During the disunion period, eremitism and literary interest emerged. Their development grew from a mixture of Chinese and foreign forces. Wang Chong in the 1st century elevated the Han because of its wealth in exotic goods (Lewis, I, 153). Foreigner’s goods received adulation and helped empower rulers. The core concept of measuring the weight of an emperor due to his ability to attract others (or exotic goods) to himself, Lewis argues allowed Buddhism to infiltrate in the 4th - 6th centuries as emperors practiced the religion (Lewis, I, 152; Lewis, II). With the rise of eremitism from before the Qin to its increase in the N & S dynasties period, (evidenced in accounts describing such individuals) the culture prepared to receive Buddhism monks and monasteries (Lewis, II, 22-23). Rising literary interest as seen in Cao, Cao, a military general who composed poetry evidenced foreign features (Lewis, II, 227). Liu Xie, writing on sounds and their written expression, demonstrates an interest which Lewis argues shows Indian literature’s presence and contact with Sanskrit (Lewis, II, 230-231). The early interest in exotic goods contributed to an acceptance and interest in unusual southern landscape features as evidenced through titles such as Xi Han’s The Appearance of Southern Grasses and Trees (Lewis, II, 21).These themes present in Chinese literature thus rooted in having contact with outsiders’ goods and the Han concept of measuring a ruler’s ability draw others. While the Chinese integrated aspects of foreign influences, nevertheless, there remained a self-conscious distance from the barbaric. The conversation between two nobles comparing the northern and southern peoples where the southerners are criticized for their “small bodies” illustrates a continued aversion to non-Chinese elements (Thompson, July 29, 09). The Chinese, due to contact with outside influences integrated certain aspects “quietly” while maintaining a certain reserve.

Another area evidencing an outsider’s touch is the Chinese cultural fabric. Just as the early Shang absorbed non-Shang weaponry, so the later culture adopted items such as Central Asian carpets and horses (Lewis, I, 129, 154). Historian Ban Gu’s letters document purchases of such exotics (Lewis, I, 154). Items such as face powder, the pipa and foods entered Chinese mainstream culture through trade (Lewis, I, 154). While adopting these elements, Chinese silk, as Faxian noted, became part of religious service in Central Asia (Lewis, II, 160). Thus while absorbing important alien elements the Chinese also impacted its surrounding neighbors.

To conclude, while foreigners strongly figure in Chinese history, core values remained intact. The Chinese adopted, merged or fled outsiders and their ideas. While outsiders often directed the rise and fall of dynasties the Chinese eventually radically changed their northern enemies and infiltrated quintessential political concepts to northern sedentary neighbors. “Foreign” ideas succeeded by springing off basic cultural cornerstones and failed to transform Chinese core values of family, religious adherence, and emperorship. While integral to Chinese history, foreigners failed to redefine the heart evidenced from prehistoric times.

References
Chang, K.C. Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1983.
Lewis, Mark. China Between Empires: The Northern and Southern Dynasties. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University, 2009.
Lewis, Mark. The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University, 2007.
Thompson, Roger R. “Chinese History to 600 A.D.” Lecture, Western Washington University, Bellingham WA, July 2009.
Dunhuang texts: handout in “Chinese History to 600 A.D.” Lecture, Western Washington
University, Bellingham WA, July 28, 2009.
The Chinese Tradition in Antiquity. Handout in “Chinese History to 600 A.D.” Lecture, Western
Washington University, Bellingham WA, July 2009.

Family and Chinese Culture

Family was and continued central to Chinese society; however, it faced change through the Northern and Southern Dynasties period through a combination of influencing factors including the rise and fall of diverse states. Throughout the period, different political entities, new status definitions and emerging religious beliefs modified or maintained the family as an important social unit. Changes differed amongst social classes and geographical location. While families remained a powerful social unit, the period established possible precedents for societal realignments.
During the N & S Dynasties period families increased power often at the state’s hands. Cao Cao, aware of the established system of recommendations, invented a new Nine Rank method (Lewis, II, 38). He clearly stated the basis of such a method, “as long as a man is talented, he should be recommended”; it rejected family ties as a basis of power (Lewis, II, 39). Despite the attempt to avert family power, under the Sima, the system changed allowing familial ties to dictate candidates (Lewis, II, 42). With the establishment of military and agricultural state established colonies, the state attempted to garner its own base of power (Lewis, II, 55). However, the newly founded Jin, trying to acquire support granted the agricultural colonies to the families (Lewis, II, 57). These concessions demonstrate the power family units already played; the grants only increased their influence as a document notes, “honored and powerful households were able to mobilize hundreds of workers” (Lewis, II, 57). The colonies mainly affected the lower class recruiting them for service. In time these positions opened opportunities for these commoners as military service became hereditary. Xie An and Huan Wen both emerged from this service and gained great political power.
Another state policy increasing familial power occurred in the South where the state left irrigation and land cultivation to estate holders. Their involvement helped them develop technologies which granted greater wealth and power (Lewis, II, 13). Under different government systems great families augmented their power bases in unique ways. In the North with its lack of established political order, families developed armies giving them leverage (Lewis, II, 33). Southern China, a lush and agriculturally rich land, saw families amass estates and enter the court’s social elite (Lewis, II, 53). In the North, families formed a strong kinship link as a writer puts, “the northern lands emphasize sharing a surname, and call all such people ‘blood kin’” (Lewis, II, 130). Southern families while establishing huge estates tended to subdivide property. A memorial reveals families dividing possessions and turning cold shoulders to family members (Lewis, II, 131).The differences raises the question: could these be linked to political circumstances or did other societal structures encourage these dissimilarities?
Rising from the hereditary nature of the military colonies and the Nine Rank system came the practice of listing genealogies. These became essential to gain political office and those members who contributed nothing to an increase in rank were dropped from the chronology (Lewis, II, 134). Such a practice perhaps indicates a rising fissure point which defined kin on political grounds instead of filial piety. The Cui demonstrates the change. A Cui leader emphasized serving family before state, yet upon integrating into the Northern Wei court loyalty began disintegrating (Lewis, II, 133). With the Northern Wei’s split, Cui members sided with political leaders (Lewis, II, 133). Lewis notes northern and southern families increasingly adopted similar values; if so, they began placing importance upon political or social gain (Lewis, II, 134). Thus, while the Nine Rank method subverted to familial advantage, the rise of hereditary rank and genealogies turned the attention on political alliances versus kinship links. The state might yet work to divide family allegiances.
Another aspect defining social organization during the period is the emergence of a new social elitism that redefined status. Beginning with the “pure critique” movement, families developed a new self-definition which focused on literary and intellectual accomplishments (Lewis, II, 30-31). Lewis argues this led to a militarily weak south. Another aspect these new pursuits brought was individualism. Liu Fang contrasting the northern and southern people states, “families of the south are refined, so they value the exceptional individual” (Lewis, II, 134). The emphasis on cultivation and accomplishment created a breach between merit based on family line and inborn talent. Zhong Rong wrote Rankings of Poetry where he categorized poets based on aptitude not family ties, indicating the rise of a new value system based on the individual’s own qualities (Lewis, II, 235). Developments in poetry increasingly encouraged self expression. Cao Zhi’s “Mulberry on the Bank” is a reflection of his own feelings (Lewis, II, 228). Thus, the individual and his feelings are brought to the forefront. Writer Yan Zhitui, critiques anyone who without study wages war, revealing the basis of evaluation and the value placed on self-cultivation (Lewis, II, 68). With an individualistic focus, the communal nature of the family unit begins to break apart. The disunion of Southern family organization may reflect a focus on the characteristics of individuals rather than family ties or land of birth.
As Chinese families faced changes in the political and social spheres, they also embraced new religions. Daoism and Buddhism emerged strong integrating into the state and society. The Northern Wei, under different rulers, espoused either religion at a certain time (Lewis, II, 207). Buddhism’s influence from the state to the common level is clear from the carvings at Yangang and Longmen where inscriptions from each social class are found (Lewis, II, 209). Southern courts embraced the religion wholeheartedly with emperors participating in the religious rituals (Lewis, II, 206). The state’s involvement encouraged the spread and adoption of Buddhism. The Northern Wei instituted a chief monk and created samgha households where prisoners worked at Buddhist monasteries (Lewis, II, 207). Emperor Wu of Liang, in hosting large scale religious events reinforced the new faith (Lewis, II, 206). Buddhism began to exude and exert a significant influence upon the court. The Eastern Jin and other southern dominions exempted monks from bowing to the emperor (Lewis, II, 206). Such a development highlights a new power over the government. While the state supported Buddhism, it did not create or institute it as the First Emperor of the Qin with his feng and shen rituals. Being a separate entity, it possessed the possibility of turning against the state or society. Its rising power is revealed in the tale where the local population, observing an image “cry” interpreted the event as a sign of an impending disaster; so powerful was the belief that the government ordered the locals not to gaze upon the image. Here, belief wielded the authority to threaten the established social order and government. Texts, attached to sutras found in Dunhuang, hold prayers revealing the peoples’ desires and hopes they wish fulfilled through the act. One individual prays for his family and that, “the state may be preserved from pestilence” (Entry 3). Here the Army Superintendant expects acceptance and a response to his prayers in which he includes the state. The religion was granting individuals a voice for personal wishes through prayer, a powerful tool which could eventually be wielded against the state. Just as individualism appeared through literary works, so it entered through Buddhism. The Sect of the Three Stages emphasized the Buddha nature in all, opening the door to transcend class status and value each individual on a different basis (Lewis, II, 214). Buddhism offered to all the promise of an afterlife as it seen in the Army Superintendent’s wish for his parents to reach the “Pure Land” (Dunhuang Texts, Entry 3). With the concept of an afterlife it maintained the link between ancestors and live family members. As Buddhism infiltrated Chinese society, it became a fundamental part of funerary practices and rituals since monks needed to facilitate (Lewis, II, 189). While the state played a part in spurring the rise of Daoism and especially Buddhism, the religion maintained autonomous. Being a separate entity, it could be manipulated either by the state or influential families or it could exert its own authority on the two. It opened the door to commoners and infiltrated familial funerary practices and beliefs about ancestors. While tying family to ancestors it granted individual worth on the basis of individual potential. Thus Buddhism readjusted social organization to include commoners and insert an entity which families could maneuver over the state.
To conclude, while family continued as an important social unit during the N & S dynasties the period brought developments which could fracture the unity. State initiatives or lack of it allowed families to augment their clout. Those efforts meaning to avoid family power became structures toward the opposite goal. The rising interest in self-cultivation introduced a sense of individualism. This same idea is visible through Buddhism and the use of genealogies for political gain. Each established precedents for valuing people on individual talent or worth which could fracture the cohesion and interdependence of family lines. Additionally, society may begin to subdivide alliances on “acculturation”, religion or political party leading to a fracturing of the basic social cell. If self-cultivation, identification with a religious belief or political loyalty became categories for group formation and establishment, the culture could reorganize in relation to memberships rather than family ties. If these fissure points developed, the society’s life cell would be threatened and could define family choices after Sui abolished the Nine Rank System (Lewis, II, 250).

References
Lewis, Mark. China Between Empires: The Northern and Southern Dynasties. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University, 2009.
Dunhuang Texts. Handout in “Chinese History to 600 A.D.” Lecture, Western Washington
University, Bellingham WA, July 2009.

What about Religion?

As new evidence begins to surface about ancient China, new understandings emerge regarding the development of this ancient society. Author K.C. Chang utilizes classic texts and archeological findings to present an argument for China’s initiation as one founded on political pursuit. After presenting his position, I will reconsider the role of religion as presented in relation to political authority and social organization.

As K.C. Chang writes on China’s original development, he argues for a non-Western perspective in understanding this stage. He argues that gaining political power is the central force behind China’s emergence. Analyzing families and villages, morality, religion, art and writing in pre-historic and early historic China, Chang argues the alignment in each centered on political authority. Within a clan could be several lineages, but certain lines held greater precedence. If a person established another settlement, the founder’s lineage determined its status. Chang argues the motive behind founding new settlements banked on gaining political power. The poem quoted from the Shih ends noting the new armies which now march out to war; consequently, the reference to war, as a crowning result of raising the new town’s gates, indicates the connections between power, war and the new community. New settlements gave founders political power. While family ancestry played an important factor, Chang notes the importance of morality in bringing someone to power. Another critical link to gaining and maintaining power centered on communication with the heavens which contained, “all the wisdom of human affairs.” Kings utilized oracle bones for divination to gain wisdom as they ruled. Deities and ancestors were invoked for the purpose of maintaining effective power. Chang examines ancient art to reveal the relationship between animals and humans in the role of ritual. While the earliest written characters may only indicate family lineage, the oracle bones, from the Shang period, along with future historiographers’ records evidently progressed due to rituals for the goal of increasing and facilitating political rule. Ultimately, Chang makes a case on the driving force of politics in the ancient land of China.

While K.C. Chang focuses on the importance of politics behind the ancient peoples, I believe religion could carry equal or greater weight. As the author made the case for political power as the driving motivation for this culture, right alongside it was the role of religion. The two are closely linked; consequently, it raises the question: what if religious adherence was really the shaping force? All people have a set of beliefs that guide their actions; the religious faith of ancient Chinese ancestors may have placed value on certain acts. If we accept Chang’s evidence for the establishment of family bloodlines, their origins are noteworthy. According to myths, both the Hsia and Chou trace their lineage to encounters with the “Supreme God”. In the second version of the Hsia origin myth, their ancestor’s grandfather angers the “Supreme God” and is left to die. Out of his body emerges Yu, whose son Ch’i begins the Hsia line. The Shang’s myth is even more forthright in saying Shen Min came from the “Supreme God” and fathered Hou Chi. The starting point for any family line depended on a link to “divine descent.”

The influence of religious practice traces far into ancient pre-history. Chang notes there is no political power visible in the Yang-shao periods. Yet archeologists discovered a pottery piece with a human face and a fish at each ear for this period. It strikes a similarity with figure 28, showing a shaman with two snakes from each ear. The Lung-shan culture practiced scapulimacy, a type of divination. The myth in Kuo Yu describes the functions of shamans and the resulting benefits: “the spirits sent down blessings on the people, and accepted from them their offerings. There were no natural calamities.” Since the myth places such importance on communicating with heaven, it indicates the relevance of the religious beliefs. The account in Tso Chuan recounts how the blessing of heaven depended on the virtue of the Hsia, Shang and the Chou cultures. Notably, it also presents the role of religious items in bringing heaven’s blessings. While there is no direct proof for shamanism during the Shang period, the fact that rulers placed such value in gaining wisdom both from ancestors and Ti, the “Supreme God,” through the oracle bones reveals the leverage their beliefs swayed.

While family bloodlines determined the rightful heir to power, Chang highlights the secondary prerequisites that could qualify someone else. The Tso Chuan myth points out the importance of virtue in determining which group ruled. Chang also notes the “Huang Yi” poem where “God” grants the Chou power because the earlier rulers displayed character flaws. The rules for new rulers and their practices focus on maintaining the set belief system. Chang writes these secondary requirements grew from the complication of tracing bloodlines; if so, the type of secondary requirement chosen indicates the importance of morality. The first thing a new town needed was a temple. Figure 17 on the establishment of temples in a settlement shows the importance of the leader’s temple. The established religious practices directed these rulers with political authority. The Li Chi quoted, “[Rituals]…are not a thing coming to a man from without; it issues from within him….When the heart is deeply moved, expression is given to it by ceremonies…only men of ability and virtues can give complete exhibition to the idea of [rituals].” If a man was not virtuous and naturally observing religious practices, he could not be a ruler. Practicing rituals was integral to ruling. Even during the Eastern Chou period with the debate on whether meritocracy or bloodlines should determine who ruled, the connection to religion remains. Lineage was based on divine descent and the system of meritocracy depended on morality which is inextricably linked to religion. This determination could be a Western interpretation tying true morality to religion; however, the Li Chi quote above, indicated the same perspective. Only those with virtue could practice truly practice rituals.

Everything in this pre-dynastic period centered on the established religious practices. If verifying a family lineage required a link to the divine, cultures far into 5000 B.C. hint at early shaman practices, and the authority to claim power rested on virtue, the established religion played a determining role in the society. While Chang presents the cultures’ components as legitimizing and driving towards exercising political authority, I would argue this drive grew out of adherence to the established faith. Religion was the driving force, the guiding hand which delineated the progress and direction of the culture: a direction which developed politically. Faith being so fundamental to life gave those closest to its observance, power. It is similar to the Roman Catholic popes during the early middle ages. The popes held both spiritual and political clout and the farther a member advanced in the Church the more authority he possessed. What we see in early pre-dynastic China is a combination of church and state. To understand this establishment and system, one must think in these terms and outside of today’s secular society which seeks to separate and privatize religion from the civic world.

In order to gain political power due to divine descent and adherence to virtue, people had to revere these ideas. Because the religion’s precepts were valued, followers were honored and attained political power. Due to ancestry, came the organization of state seen in the Western Chou where family members headed the levels of government. Thus an important inquiry is, how did the family line begin and its’ reverencing? If one had a strong tie to divinity, then one’s line was more powerful. Thus, it was religion which directed the evaluation of a lineage and led to a government system based on bloodlines. Religion also directed the system of meritocracy due to its influence on people to value morality, virtue and righteousness. This is evidenced by the Eastern Chou’s Shi class that received specific instruction on the three named areas. A counter thought to consider is the dominance of family ancestry. If familial connection and ancestry worship were essential, it raises the question if it was religion that placed such value on familial groupings or if it was a sociological development validated by religion. In a biological sense, the family unit was from the beginning, so an argument can be made that religious ideals were then affixed to this tradition. In order to determine the answer, one would need to determine the time religion began. Was it inborn in each human? Did it develop through social interaction? Society is composed of individuals, thus religious or spiritual affects would need to begin at the individual level. Thus, the intricate interweave of religious ideas and familial connection could have developed together. Certain concepts evident in these pre-dynastic cultures provide direction. In the Shu, one of the anonymous classic texts, it says,

Anciently, men and spirits did not intermingle.…there were certain persons…so perspicacious…that enabled them to make meaningful collation of what lies above and below.…therefore the spirits would descend into them….as a consequence, the spheres of the divine and the profane were kept distinct. The spirits send down blessings on the people, and accepted from them their offerings.

The quote, though written during the Western Chou period, reveals the presence of spirits in ancient days along with mankind. These spirits set the rules only descending on those worthy and accepting offerings as long as each sphere was respected. It would indicate religion played a critical part in directing social organization and values.

To conclude, K.C. Chang wove together a powerful argument for ancient China in determining the area’s progression into civilization. Utilizing evidence and classic texts, he examined important social aspects and their role in encouraging the pre-dynastic cultures’ development through the pursuit of political power. While his argument is cohesive, one element stands out as a possible alternative approach to uncovering the driving factor in this society. Religion holds a dominant function in the access to and direction of political authority. With spirituality rising from an individual and therefore present in pre-historic times may be the ultimate force molding and prodding ancient China toward civilization.

References
Bodde, Derk. “Myths of ancient China.” In Mythologies of the Ancient World. Ed. Samuel N. Kramer. New York: Doubleday. 1961. Quoted in K.C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1983), 45.
Chang, K.C. Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1983.
Karlgren, Berhard. The Book of Odes. 189-190. Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities. 1974. Quoted in K.C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1983), 18, 20.
The Chinese Classics. Vol. 5. 293. Translated by James Legge. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1872. Quoted in K.C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1983), 95-96.
Li Ki. In The Sacred Books of the East. Vol. 27. Translated by James Legge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885), Quoted in K.C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1983), 41.
Thompson, Roger R. “Chinese History to 600 A.D.” Lecture, Western Washington University, Bellingham WA, July 1, 2009.
Sources of Illustrations
Ch’i-yun, Jen. Chiao Miao Kung Shih K’ao. Quoted in Ling Shun-Sheng, “Chung-kuo tsu-miao chih ch’i-yuan.” Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica 7. 1959. Cited in K.C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1983), 40.

Hsi-an Pan-p’o. Peking: Science Press. 1962. Cited in K.C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1983), 114.
Shan Hai Ching Ts’un. 1895 ed. Cited in K.C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1983), 71.

K.C. Chang, Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1983), 16.
Ibid.
Chang, 18.
Berhard Karlgren, The Book of Odes, (Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, 1974), 189-190, quoted in Chang, 18, 20.
Ibid, 33.
Derk, Bodde, “Myths of ancient China,” in Mythologies of the Ancient World, Ed. Samuel N. Kramer (New York: Doubleday, 1961), quoted in Chang, 45.
Ibid, 48, 51.
Ibid, 85, 90-91.
Ibid, 10, 12.
Bodde, 399, quoted in Chang, 10.
Karlgren, quoted in Chang, 12.
Ibid, 33.
Ibid, 112.
Hsi-an Pan-p’o (Peking: Science Press, 1962), cited in Chang, 114; Chang, 114.
Shan Hai Ching Ts’un, 1895 ed., cited in Chang, 71, 73.
Ibid, 114.
Bodde, quoted in Chang, 44.
The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, trans. James Legge, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1872), 293, quoted in Chang, 95-96.
Chang, 54.
Legge, 293, quoted in Chang, 95-96.
Karlgren, 194, quoted in Ibid, 33-34.
Ibid, 33.
Ibid, 37.
Jen Ch’i-yun, Chiao Miao Kung Shih K’ao, as quoted in Ling Shun-Sheng, “Chung-kuo tsu-miao chih ch’i-yuan,” Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica 7 (1959), cited in Ibid, 40.
Li Ki, in The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 27, trans. James Legge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885), quoted in Chang, 41.
Chang, 41.
Roger R. Thompson. “Chinese History to 600 A.D.” (lecture, Western Washington University. Bellingham WA. July 1, 2009.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Bodde, quoted in Chang, 44; Thompson, 7/1/09.
Thompson, 7/1/09.

Chinese History

I am taking an Ancient China course which has proven detailed, through, engaging and fascinating. Reading through what seems like a tome of information I found a quote that reveals the truth for all of mankind. Every culture, despite its rituals and religions, in the end must face this reality:

Nineteen Old Poems:
Through the ages mourners in their turn are mourned,
Neither sages nor worthy can escape.
Seeking by diet to obtain immortality,
Many have been the dupes of drugs.
Better far to drink good wine,
And clothe our bodies in silk and satin.

What did these men do?

NEW HAMPSHIRE: Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton
MASSACHUSETTS: John Hancock, John Adams, Samuel Adams, Robert Treat Paine
RHODE ISLAND: Elbridge Gerry, Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery
CONNECTICUT: Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott
NEW YORK: William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris
NEW JERSEY: Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark
PENNSYLVANIA: Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross
DELAWARE: Ceasar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean
MARYLAND: Samuel Chase, Thomas Stone, William Paca, Charles Carroll of Carrollton
VIRGINIA: George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton
NORTH CAROLINA: William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn
SOUTH CAROLINA: Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Authur Middleton
GEORGIA: Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton

Barton, David: Documents of Freedom. Aledo, TX : WallBuildersPress, 2002, S. 11

Who is he?

Born in Westerly, Rhode Island to Ralph LeRoy ____ and Alice Julia Brennan ______, he went to several private schools for his early education. An early school was in the adjacent state, Conneticut.





For high school, he attended Augusta Military Academy in Virginia. His sister interviewed years later said he always wanted to enter into the military.



The new graduate entered the US Army in November 27, 1946 and served as a Freight Transportation Officer (Certificate of Service, 1948).



He was released from military duty in March 1948 and eventually attended Harvard University seeking a degree in Journalism. With the GI bill in effect he probably used those funds to pay for college.

On a trip down to Mexico to learn some Spanish, he met a young, energetic, spry lady. They were married one year later in 1951. He and his new bride eventually moved back to the United States where he finished his education. Upon completion he took a job at Payne Factory in Chicago, Illinois. A little girl was born to them. A few years later, the family moved back to Mexico where he established a Scuba Diving business. A little boy was born to them there.

Later years found him in the movie making business in Mexico. While he starred in several films he also helped dub movies. In the 1960's he was with a film crew on an airplane filming the adjacent craft. The two collided and he perished in the accident.
From Rhode Island to Mexico, who was this actor in history?
References:
Carmen Judith R. (N/A). Interview. By _______.
Carmen Judith R. (1988) Letters to _______. From Roanoke, Virginia.

Memorial Day Tribute

Thank you to those killed in action, veterans and current military members. Thank you for all you've done to keep our country free from the patriots at Lexington and Concord to Afganistan and Iraq. May God bless you and our country.

Who could it be?

Many years ago, on February 22nd, 1732, in a farm called “Pope’s Creek Farm,” in a one-story home on the Potomac River a baby was born to August and Mary (Wilbur, 1973, p. 40-41). He grew up helping on the farm, and received a strong basic education from his father (Wilbur, 1973, 60). Surviving notebooks show his careful handwriting and intricate math work (Wilbur, 1973,p. 104). Often he studied for one or two hours before breakfast then helped out with the farm, and horse and had wrestling matches with his father (Wilbur, 1973, 78). Then when this young boy was eleven, his father died (Wilbur, 1973, 92).

At fourteen years of age, he focused some of his studies on surveying. By sixteen, a wealthy landowner hired him to survey his lands (Williamson, 1995, pp. 16-17). This gentleman so admired the quality of his work he helped him become the public surveyor (Williamson, 1995, p. 20).

At twenty-one this youth’s courage and nobility were so well known, the governor sent him on a special mission (Williamson, 1995, p. 29). Although an army Captain had already tried to fulfill this mission and returned, this youth succeeded in delivering the governor’s message to the French who were encroaching on colonial land (Williamson, 1995, p. 29). This meant traveling through stormy weather, canoeing through freezing water, sleeping and traveling in the elements, at times fearing an attack (Williamson, 1995, p. 32-33). Eventually his people and the French went to war. Within the army he soon rose in rank and eventually was appointed commander-in-chief of his state’s forces (Williamson, 1995, p. 63). Next his county voted him to represent them in their governing body the House of Burgesses (Williamson, 1995, p. 73).

When the American colonies went to war with England, the Continental Congress appointed him Commander-in-chief of their army. “I do not feel equal to the command,” he humbly replied and asked to serve without pay (Williamson, 1995, p. 97). Even after the war when the Congress offered to pay him, he refused (Williamson, 1995, p. 179).

When the new nation designed its form of government, they elected him as the first President. He served faithfully for eight years and when the third election came up, he declined to run for president again. Two years later he died at his home Mt. Vernon on December 14th 1799 (Williamson, 1995, 206). His country proclaimed him as a man, “first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen” (Williamson, 1995, p. 308). What could be the name for this young man?

References:
Williamson, M.L. (1995) Life and Anecdotes of George Washington: For Young Readers. Harrisonburg,
Virginia: Sprinkle Publications.
Wilbur, William H. (1973) The Making of George Washington. DeLand, Florida: Patriotic Education Inc.

"Stonewall" Jackson

Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson: Born January 21, 1824 Virginia.

His father died when he was two, at age seven, his mother sent him to live with his Uncle Cummins (Stonewall Jackson House, 2008, p. 1). Although he only got three years of formal schooling, he attended West Point and graduated in 1846 seventeenth in his class of fifty-nine graduates (SJH, 2008, p. 1). As a U S soldier, Thomas Jackson committed great acts of bravery during the Mexican War (SJH, 2008, p. 1).

After the war he moved to Lexington, Virginia where he became a Christian and a member at the Lexington Presbyterian Church (Dabney, 1983, p. 83; SJH, 2008, p. 2). Although greatly opposed and against state law, he founded a Sunday School for free and enslaved African Americans (Johnson, 1999, p. 476; SJH, 2008, p. 2). There were often more than one hundred in his class and he set high standards for himself and his students (Williams, 2002, para.4).
Although Jackson disagreed with slavery, he also felt strongly about states’ rights and served in the Confederate army during the Civil War. (Johnson, 1999, p. 476; Sons of the South, 2003-2008, para. 5). During the war he remained interested in his class for African Americans and sent monetary contributions (Williams, 2002, para. 6).

Before the war ended, he was wounded by friendly fire in Chancellorsville, Virginia (SOS, 2003-2008, para. 5). Jackson died after a few days. He was survived by his wife, greatly bereaved by his people (Dabney, 1983, p. 729). The love he poured into his Sunday school class and the love they held for him was displayed when a young African American boy placed a flag and hymn stanza at his grave (Williams, 2002, para. 7).

References

Williams, R.G. Jr. (2002). Stonewall Jackson, Champion of Black Literacy. Retrieved from http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig2/williams1.html

Dabney, R. L. (1983). Life and Campaigns of Lieutenant General Thomas J. Stonewall Jackson.
Harrisonburg, Virginia: Sprinkle Publications.

Johnson, P. (1999). A History of the American People. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Stonewall Jackson House Staff. (2008, December). Discovering Thomas J. “Stonewall”
Jackson: A Biography (Stonewall Jackson House Undergraduate Intern, Revised). Retrieved from Stonewall Jackson House website
http://www.stonewalljackson.org/edu2.mgi

(2003-2008). Thomas Jonathan Jackson: Biography. Retrieved from Sons of the South

http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/Stonewall_Jackson.htm

U.S. National Park Service. VMI. 'Confederate General Stonewall Jackson
1824-1863 "You may be whatever you resolve to be"'. Retrieved from
http://americancivilwar.com/south/stonewall_jackson.html

Ida B. Wells. History 263 Continued...

Well a week ago I introduced W E B DuBois, an African American writer. Another influential writer was Ida B. Wells, an African American woman. She worked in Memphis but had to go North for personal safety. She wrote Southern Horrors, a pamphlet to alert the world, African American community, and the white community that would listen about the abuses against her people. Here is a bit I wrote explaining a chapter in her pamphlet:

Why did Ida B. Wells write Southern Horrors?

Ida B. Wells, once a part of the Free Speech in Memphis Tennessee, originally wrote Southern Horrors in defense of an editorial she authored with the former newspaper (50). When several African Americans accused of rape were lynched, Ida B. Wells wrote questioning the rising number of rape accusations brought against her people (53). The rape claims being so frequent, she wrote, would eventually cause sensible citizens to question the innocence of their women (52).
The piece enraged the people of Memphis; consequently, the writers of Free Speech left and the press was closed (51, 53). Wells felt the circumstances merited an exposition on the facts behind her arguments and thus wrote her defense: “Exiled” (50). As its popularity increased, individuals requested the work be printed as a pamphlet (50). Thus the authoress responded to the cry, worked on the piece and published it as Southern Horrors (50). Through it she sought to defend her race stating, “the Afro-American is not a bestial race” and to demonstrate that, “the Afro-American race is more sinned against than sinning” (50). In showing this, she hoped to, “arouse the conscience of the American people to a demand for justice” for all, including her own and to bring those who were lynching to justice (50).

What was her purpose in Southern Horrors?

In Ida B. Well’s “Self Help” from Southern Horrors, she addresses her fellow African Americans in a call to action. Enough time had passed in silent submission. The call presents four ways to eliminate lynching. Of the four, two seek to gain leverage through economic means. Through an effective example, she demonstrates African American power to manipulate white authorities. On one occasion several African Americans left Memphis thereby reducing proceeds for the local transportation business. It induced the business leaders to beg for their return. She utilizes another case in Covington where a segregation law on transportation cut off African American patronage. Since African Americans formed a majority of the travelers, it greatly affected the industry. Withdrawing their presence and their business, African Americans could disrupt the local economy and induce the authorities to denounce lynching. Financial prosperity she argues is quintessential to white society. The other two methods presented entailed action through self-defense. First, she urges the necessity to own and use arms in self-defense. Silent submission to lynching only produced more oppression, resistance would stagnate the bravado of lynching aggressors. Secondly, Ida B. Wells addresses the use of the media. Through media one can alert people rousing them to action; however, she laments, the black press is without resources to properly investigate the committed injustices. Wells offers several examples where African Americans are unjustly accused or dealt harsh sentences and the white individuals involved are either acquitted or dealt easy penalties. Due to lack of wherewithal, African American papers could not properly examine the case and publish an alternate interpretation to the white presses’ rendition. To close, the chapter presents four avenues, emigration, boycott, bearing arms, and the media, whereby African Americans can effectively stand up and force the establishment to outlaw lynching.

Stay tuned for more pieces on African American history...

Winter Quarter History 263

During the Winter quarter I took African Americans since 1865 to the Present. We read several books on African American leaders from Ida B. Wells, W E B DuBois, Malcolm X, Robert F. Williams, and Barack Obama.
It actually proved a very interesting course. I enjoyed the professor, very professional in speech and dress, and in conducting the material. Liberal nonetheless.
Some writers stood out such as WEB DuBois, Martin Luther King Jr., and Barack Obama. The first was a highly educated African American writing in the late and early 18th & 19th centuries. We had to evaluate his book Souls of Black Folks. Here is a bit of what I wrote:

A. How would you characterize Du Bois's perspective? (Who is Du Bois? What is important to him? What does he emphasize?)

W.E.B. Du Bois, a highly educated African American, evaluates the Southern situation with a desire to fairly present those involved and suggest the steps necessary to remedy the conditions (112, 113). While he has his people at heart he also considers the South’s future (113). He seeks to carefully and methodically explain the causes behind the stated conditions. As he examines his topic, he carefully balances his words explaining the perspectives and actions of both the white and black communities. Addressing the crime issue, he explains why both the white and black people respond as they do (108).
He views his people’s condition as a result of inadequate training, color-based prejudice, and lack of self initiative. Discussing the freedmen’s involvement in the market place, he states, “what the black laborer needs is careful personal guidance, group leadership of men with hearts in their bosoms, to train them to foresight, carefulness, and honesty” (102). Within slavery they learned one system of labor but now in the free marketplace, these men needed direction and training to effectively compete (102). This training must extend to the ballot, to encourage African Americans to vote and use it effectively and wisely (105-106).
The issue of color-based discrimination constantly rises throughout his work because he views it as a core reason behind his people’s poor condition (112-113).
It segregates neighborhoods, economically disadvantages them, disenfranchises his people, segregates the intellectual, commercial, and social realms, and prevents whites from extending an aiding hand (101, 103, 106, 110, 111, 112). It causes misperceptions between the two races (101).
In his mind, African Americans must gain the ballot, get an education, and help their own (104, 109, 113). His people, he felt, did not completely grasp their need to advance and help themselves out of their situation (113).
In some ways he acknowledges and accepts that racial prejudice will linger for awhile (104). Thus he encourages his people to help themselves out, yet he feels the complete future progress of the region depends on the dual cooperation of both races (113). For his people argue “when, by proscription and prejudice, these same Negros are classed with and treated like the lowest of their people, simply because they are Negros” it discourages progress and encourages crime (112-113).

With time I will introduce some other African American writers...

Nationalism

Disclaimer: I didn't have as much time to focus on this essay. I do not wholeheartedly disagree with nationalism. I feel there is such a thing as a healthy pride in one's people and nation; however, it must not become a barrier to reaching out to others in the love of Christ. Also, though I did not touch on it, Social Darwinism led to several of these theories of racial inequality. It played a large role in affecting nationalist sentiments.

In 1922, Germany’s national anthem title, “Deutschland, Deutschland Uber Alles”, “German, Germany, Over All”, evoked the spirit of nationalism (KOT, 900). Just as Germany espoused this spirit at this time so did other European nations. The practice of nationalism proved destructive because its principles led to the justification of dominating established governments, engaging in combat and slaughtering human beings on the basis of nationalism. This study seeks to determine the effects of nationalism espoused by several European nations between the years 1870 and 1995. It defines nationalism as seen in cultural and political realms. Culturally, nationalism encourages pride and loyalty to a nationality which is views as having a special mission (Costanzo, 1, 30, 09). Politically, nationalism encourages the formation of a unique nation state, which must be protected (Costanzo, 1, 30, 09). To examine how and why nationalism was destructive over the stated time period one must first understand the ideology’s components which led to damaging economic expansion, warfare and racial discrimination.

During the 1870’s and 1900’s, various European nations espousing nationalism expanded geographically upon Africa. The mentality of adulating and adhering allegiance to one’s nationality justified the attitudes of imperialism and racial stratification. This sequence is seen in British Cecil Rhodes’s Confessions of Faith. Writing in the 1870’s, he calls for the development of citizens who will zealously serve their country (Confessions of Faith, in KOT CD, 431). Such wholehearted allegiance to a nation is central to nationalism. Additionally Rhodes praises the Anglo-Saxon race as the finest; consequently, it must conquer and multiply across the globe (Confessions of Faith, in KOT CD, 430). Rhode’s pro-British perspective led him to encourage imperialist actions and the idea of racial superiority. Discussing the territorial expansion of the Anglo-Saxon race, Rhodes proposes Africa as a continent available for conquest (Confessions of Faith, in KOT CD, 430). Such expansion did occur during the late 1870’s to about1900 amongst a variety of European nations (KOT, 830). France, Italy and Britain were among the European nations which entered the African continent and dominated various regions (KOT, 834). In the 1890s, Mary Kingsley writes on West Africa (A White Woman’s Perspective of Africa, in KOT CD, 433-434). Her comments indicate the degree of French influence and European power. Later in 1906, E.D. Morel exposes the dire results of imperial expansion. “Heaps” were killed and the imposed European capitalist labor system further threatened to eradicate the African laborer (Black Man’s Burden, in KOT, 436). Within the Congo Free State ruled by Belgian King Leopold II the destructive forces of slavery, torture, and murder were utilized (KOT, 835). Between 1880 and 1920, Congo’s population was reduced to half its previous size (Costanzo, 2, 9, 09). Thus Africa endured the early consequences of nationalist principles as its governance changed hands and its people faced slaughter.

With the dawn of the 20th century came further instances of Nationalist devastation through World War I. As diverse nations maintained a perspective of national self-interest they regarded other nations with suspicion. In 1914, the German Kaiser commenting on the forces impelling the war, wrote Britain had skillfully maneuvered affairs to entrap and annihilate them (Outbreak of the World War: German Documents Collected by Karl Kautsky, in KOT, 848-849). Huda Shaarawi, traveling in Paris in 1914 notes anti-German sentiments from a French citizen who based them on conflict between the nations (Non-European’s View of the Start of World War I, KOT CD, 450). French leader Georges Clemenceau writing in retrospect on the causes of WWI, documents Germany’s nationalist literature and dogma arguing that Germany bears the guilt (Georges Clemenceau Presents the French Demands at the Paris Peace Conference, KOT CD, 454-455). National allegiances led to different interpretations on the causes of WWI. Lasting four years, the war brought galling numbers of deaths as a total of about ten million soldiers died (Costanzo, 2, 13, 09). With nations looking out for their own protection WWI lasting from 1914-1918, emerged continuing nationalist viewpoints and resulting in horrific destruction of human life.

Despite the devastation of WWI, nationalist self-interest and the idea of the nation’s racial superiority developed in some European nations. In 1922, Benito Mussolini gained leadership in Italy (Costanzo, 2, 20, 09). His piece The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism, notes the established Fascist doctrine gave a “new way of life for Italy” (Mussolini, KOT CD, 473). It notes Fascism did not believe permanent peace was attainable. Rather, in establishing humanity, war was the only force which could bring out the finest. Clearly, Italian leadership promoted a singular viewpoint glorifying warfare as a purifying process. In Germany, Adolf Hitler a rising political figure, spoke against WWI’s peace treaty claiming it sought to eliminate their people and called for a nationalist German movement (The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, in KOT, 901). His statement demonstrates a one-sided outlook and evokes the nationalist principles of total national allegiance. He also advocated for the racial superiority of the Aryan. In Mein Kampf, Hitler argued human races ought to follow the natural order of procreating within their own race (Hitler, 311). This would preserve the superior human races from polluting with inferior ones; the Aryans being the former and the Jews the latter (Hitler, 311, 313, 315). The 1935 German propaganda film Triumph of the Will, notes the same ideas (Riefenstahl, 1933). While addressing a group of German youth Hitler pronounces, “Germany it is the future, present and past” (Riefenstahl, 1935). It is a blatant call to view the country as targets for their lives and energy. In another scene, a different German leader proclaimed that those people who do not guard the purity of the race will perish (Riefenstahl, 1935). Paramount to their nation’s survival was maintaining the purity of the Aryan race. This rhetoric of racial purity led Hitler to demand and occupy the Czechoslovakian territory populated with a majority of Germanic peoples in 1938 (Neville Chamberlain Defends the Policy of Appeasement, KOT CD, 469). Germany and Russia signed a non-aggression pact in 1939, and Hitler announced their mutual goal to, “re-distribute the world” and his initial steps to exterminate Polish people and make space for the Germans (Adolf Hitler: The Obersalzberg Speech, KOT CD, 500). World War II had begun.

While the first Great War brought devastation, the Second World War, 1939 to 1945, surpassed the first on the battlefront and through racial purges. The amount of civilian casualties roughly equaled the total number of military deaths at about fifteen million each (KOT, 960). If deaths directly related to the war are included about forty million people died worldwide (KOT, 960). Additionally, mass murders based on race wrought further destruction. Hitler’s anti-Jewish rhetoric instigated a campaign to exterminate them and other “inferior” humans. Kurt Gerstein, a German Storm Trooper at Belsen in 1942, described the babies, children, youth and adults hauled in by trains to be gassed to death (Pius XII and the Third Reich: A Documentation, in KOT, 962-963). Slavs in Russian and Poland were also killed (KOT, 960). Elie Wiesel a fifteen year old Jewish youth was deported with his family and community to German concentration camps where he saw crematory ovens killing away (Wiesel, 13, 30, 31). By the end of the war, approximately six million Jews were murdered (KOT, 960). Thus not only did the military campaigns wage war against soldiers, civilians and landscape, but also the German machine conducted a sophisticated plan of ethnic extermination.

After 1945, the mid and late 20th century witnessed other evidences of nationalism through the Cold War and nationalist strife in Yugoslavia. Post-war negotiations between the western powers and Russia brought their differences to the forefront. In 1947, United States President Harry Truman expressed the United States would economically and monetarily aid any country against imposing nations to maintain its liberty (A Decade of American Foreign Policy: Basic Documents, 1941-1949, in KOT, 982). This concept was practically applied through the Marshall Plan of 1948 which gave financial aid to rebuild Europe. The Soviet Union wary and seeking to protect itself installed subservient Communist governments and monetary aid to Eastern European countries (Costanzo, 3, 4, 09). Distinct national interests led to the Cold War, a period where political relations were damaged.

In the l990’s, the Balkans region suffered further devastation due to nationalist sentiments. Organized since WWI as Yugoslavia, the region hosted several national groups (Costanzo 3, 11, 09). When Milosevic gained power over the Serbian region within Yugoslavia, he espoused nationalist ideals which created tensions with other ethnic groups (Costanzo 3, 13, 09). Croatia and Slovenia declared independence from the government in 1990 (KOT, 1014). However Milosevic turned out the country’s army against Croatia because it housed a solid Serbian group and possessed natural resources (Costanzo 3, 13, 09). The turmoil eventually extended over dominating Bosnia-Herzegovina, which bore geographical and resource importance to each national entity (Costanzo, 3, 13, 09) By the time the international community intervened in 1995, the Serbs had engaged in “ethnic cleansing” (Costanzo, 3, 13, 09). In the town of Srebrenica the Serbs had killed eight thousand males (Costanzo, 3, 13, 09).

To conclude, from the 1870s to the late 19th century nationalism led to horrific destruction. It brought murder to Africa, two World Wars, political tensions, and ethnic warfare in Yugoslavia. Through nationalist ideals imperialism and racial inequality led to decimation of countries and human life.