"Stonewall" Jackson

Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson: Born January 21, 1824 Virginia.

His father died when he was two, at age seven, his mother sent him to live with his Uncle Cummins (Stonewall Jackson House, 2008, p. 1). Although he only got three years of formal schooling, he attended West Point and graduated in 1846 seventeenth in his class of fifty-nine graduates (SJH, 2008, p. 1). As a U S soldier, Thomas Jackson committed great acts of bravery during the Mexican War (SJH, 2008, p. 1).

After the war he moved to Lexington, Virginia where he became a Christian and a member at the Lexington Presbyterian Church (Dabney, 1983, p. 83; SJH, 2008, p. 2). Although greatly opposed and against state law, he founded a Sunday School for free and enslaved African Americans (Johnson, 1999, p. 476; SJH, 2008, p. 2). There were often more than one hundred in his class and he set high standards for himself and his students (Williams, 2002, para.4).
Although Jackson disagreed with slavery, he also felt strongly about states’ rights and served in the Confederate army during the Civil War. (Johnson, 1999, p. 476; Sons of the South, 2003-2008, para. 5). During the war he remained interested in his class for African Americans and sent monetary contributions (Williams, 2002, para. 6).

Before the war ended, he was wounded by friendly fire in Chancellorsville, Virginia (SOS, 2003-2008, para. 5). Jackson died after a few days. He was survived by his wife, greatly bereaved by his people (Dabney, 1983, p. 729). The love he poured into his Sunday school class and the love they held for him was displayed when a young African American boy placed a flag and hymn stanza at his grave (Williams, 2002, para. 7).

References

Williams, R.G. Jr. (2002). Stonewall Jackson, Champion of Black Literacy. Retrieved from http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig2/williams1.html

Dabney, R. L. (1983). Life and Campaigns of Lieutenant General Thomas J. Stonewall Jackson.
Harrisonburg, Virginia: Sprinkle Publications.

Johnson, P. (1999). A History of the American People. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Stonewall Jackson House Staff. (2008, December). Discovering Thomas J. “Stonewall”
Jackson: A Biography (Stonewall Jackson House Undergraduate Intern, Revised). Retrieved from Stonewall Jackson House website
http://www.stonewalljackson.org/edu2.mgi

(2003-2008). Thomas Jonathan Jackson: Biography. Retrieved from Sons of the South

http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/Stonewall_Jackson.htm

U.S. National Park Service. VMI. 'Confederate General Stonewall Jackson
1824-1863 "You may be whatever you resolve to be"'. Retrieved from
http://americancivilwar.com/south/stonewall_jackson.html

Ida B. Wells. History 263 Continued...

Well a week ago I introduced W E B DuBois, an African American writer. Another influential writer was Ida B. Wells, an African American woman. She worked in Memphis but had to go North for personal safety. She wrote Southern Horrors, a pamphlet to alert the world, African American community, and the white community that would listen about the abuses against her people. Here is a bit I wrote explaining a chapter in her pamphlet:

Why did Ida B. Wells write Southern Horrors?

Ida B. Wells, once a part of the Free Speech in Memphis Tennessee, originally wrote Southern Horrors in defense of an editorial she authored with the former newspaper (50). When several African Americans accused of rape were lynched, Ida B. Wells wrote questioning the rising number of rape accusations brought against her people (53). The rape claims being so frequent, she wrote, would eventually cause sensible citizens to question the innocence of their women (52).
The piece enraged the people of Memphis; consequently, the writers of Free Speech left and the press was closed (51, 53). Wells felt the circumstances merited an exposition on the facts behind her arguments and thus wrote her defense: “Exiled” (50). As its popularity increased, individuals requested the work be printed as a pamphlet (50). Thus the authoress responded to the cry, worked on the piece and published it as Southern Horrors (50). Through it she sought to defend her race stating, “the Afro-American is not a bestial race” and to demonstrate that, “the Afro-American race is more sinned against than sinning” (50). In showing this, she hoped to, “arouse the conscience of the American people to a demand for justice” for all, including her own and to bring those who were lynching to justice (50).

What was her purpose in Southern Horrors?

In Ida B. Well’s “Self Help” from Southern Horrors, she addresses her fellow African Americans in a call to action. Enough time had passed in silent submission. The call presents four ways to eliminate lynching. Of the four, two seek to gain leverage through economic means. Through an effective example, she demonstrates African American power to manipulate white authorities. On one occasion several African Americans left Memphis thereby reducing proceeds for the local transportation business. It induced the business leaders to beg for their return. She utilizes another case in Covington where a segregation law on transportation cut off African American patronage. Since African Americans formed a majority of the travelers, it greatly affected the industry. Withdrawing their presence and their business, African Americans could disrupt the local economy and induce the authorities to denounce lynching. Financial prosperity she argues is quintessential to white society. The other two methods presented entailed action through self-defense. First, she urges the necessity to own and use arms in self-defense. Silent submission to lynching only produced more oppression, resistance would stagnate the bravado of lynching aggressors. Secondly, Ida B. Wells addresses the use of the media. Through media one can alert people rousing them to action; however, she laments, the black press is without resources to properly investigate the committed injustices. Wells offers several examples where African Americans are unjustly accused or dealt harsh sentences and the white individuals involved are either acquitted or dealt easy penalties. Due to lack of wherewithal, African American papers could not properly examine the case and publish an alternate interpretation to the white presses’ rendition. To close, the chapter presents four avenues, emigration, boycott, bearing arms, and the media, whereby African Americans can effectively stand up and force the establishment to outlaw lynching.

Stay tuned for more pieces on African American history...

Winter Quarter History 263

During the Winter quarter I took African Americans since 1865 to the Present. We read several books on African American leaders from Ida B. Wells, W E B DuBois, Malcolm X, Robert F. Williams, and Barack Obama.
It actually proved a very interesting course. I enjoyed the professor, very professional in speech and dress, and in conducting the material. Liberal nonetheless.
Some writers stood out such as WEB DuBois, Martin Luther King Jr., and Barack Obama. The first was a highly educated African American writing in the late and early 18th & 19th centuries. We had to evaluate his book Souls of Black Folks. Here is a bit of what I wrote:

A. How would you characterize Du Bois's perspective? (Who is Du Bois? What is important to him? What does he emphasize?)

W.E.B. Du Bois, a highly educated African American, evaluates the Southern situation with a desire to fairly present those involved and suggest the steps necessary to remedy the conditions (112, 113). While he has his people at heart he also considers the South’s future (113). He seeks to carefully and methodically explain the causes behind the stated conditions. As he examines his topic, he carefully balances his words explaining the perspectives and actions of both the white and black communities. Addressing the crime issue, he explains why both the white and black people respond as they do (108).
He views his people’s condition as a result of inadequate training, color-based prejudice, and lack of self initiative. Discussing the freedmen’s involvement in the market place, he states, “what the black laborer needs is careful personal guidance, group leadership of men with hearts in their bosoms, to train them to foresight, carefulness, and honesty” (102). Within slavery they learned one system of labor but now in the free marketplace, these men needed direction and training to effectively compete (102). This training must extend to the ballot, to encourage African Americans to vote and use it effectively and wisely (105-106).
The issue of color-based discrimination constantly rises throughout his work because he views it as a core reason behind his people’s poor condition (112-113).
It segregates neighborhoods, economically disadvantages them, disenfranchises his people, segregates the intellectual, commercial, and social realms, and prevents whites from extending an aiding hand (101, 103, 106, 110, 111, 112). It causes misperceptions between the two races (101).
In his mind, African Americans must gain the ballot, get an education, and help their own (104, 109, 113). His people, he felt, did not completely grasp their need to advance and help themselves out of their situation (113).
In some ways he acknowledges and accepts that racial prejudice will linger for awhile (104). Thus he encourages his people to help themselves out, yet he feels the complete future progress of the region depends on the dual cooperation of both races (113). For his people argue “when, by proscription and prejudice, these same Negros are classed with and treated like the lowest of their people, simply because they are Negros” it discourages progress and encourages crime (112-113).

With time I will introduce some other African American writers...

Nationalism

Disclaimer: I didn't have as much time to focus on this essay. I do not wholeheartedly disagree with nationalism. I feel there is such a thing as a healthy pride in one's people and nation; however, it must not become a barrier to reaching out to others in the love of Christ. Also, though I did not touch on it, Social Darwinism led to several of these theories of racial inequality. It played a large role in affecting nationalist sentiments.

In 1922, Germany’s national anthem title, “Deutschland, Deutschland Uber Alles”, “German, Germany, Over All”, evoked the spirit of nationalism (KOT, 900). Just as Germany espoused this spirit at this time so did other European nations. The practice of nationalism proved destructive because its principles led to the justification of dominating established governments, engaging in combat and slaughtering human beings on the basis of nationalism. This study seeks to determine the effects of nationalism espoused by several European nations between the years 1870 and 1995. It defines nationalism as seen in cultural and political realms. Culturally, nationalism encourages pride and loyalty to a nationality which is views as having a special mission (Costanzo, 1, 30, 09). Politically, nationalism encourages the formation of a unique nation state, which must be protected (Costanzo, 1, 30, 09). To examine how and why nationalism was destructive over the stated time period one must first understand the ideology’s components which led to damaging economic expansion, warfare and racial discrimination.

During the 1870’s and 1900’s, various European nations espousing nationalism expanded geographically upon Africa. The mentality of adulating and adhering allegiance to one’s nationality justified the attitudes of imperialism and racial stratification. This sequence is seen in British Cecil Rhodes’s Confessions of Faith. Writing in the 1870’s, he calls for the development of citizens who will zealously serve their country (Confessions of Faith, in KOT CD, 431). Such wholehearted allegiance to a nation is central to nationalism. Additionally Rhodes praises the Anglo-Saxon race as the finest; consequently, it must conquer and multiply across the globe (Confessions of Faith, in KOT CD, 430). Rhode’s pro-British perspective led him to encourage imperialist actions and the idea of racial superiority. Discussing the territorial expansion of the Anglo-Saxon race, Rhodes proposes Africa as a continent available for conquest (Confessions of Faith, in KOT CD, 430). Such expansion did occur during the late 1870’s to about1900 amongst a variety of European nations (KOT, 830). France, Italy and Britain were among the European nations which entered the African continent and dominated various regions (KOT, 834). In the 1890s, Mary Kingsley writes on West Africa (A White Woman’s Perspective of Africa, in KOT CD, 433-434). Her comments indicate the degree of French influence and European power. Later in 1906, E.D. Morel exposes the dire results of imperial expansion. “Heaps” were killed and the imposed European capitalist labor system further threatened to eradicate the African laborer (Black Man’s Burden, in KOT, 436). Within the Congo Free State ruled by Belgian King Leopold II the destructive forces of slavery, torture, and murder were utilized (KOT, 835). Between 1880 and 1920, Congo’s population was reduced to half its previous size (Costanzo, 2, 9, 09). Thus Africa endured the early consequences of nationalist principles as its governance changed hands and its people faced slaughter.

With the dawn of the 20th century came further instances of Nationalist devastation through World War I. As diverse nations maintained a perspective of national self-interest they regarded other nations with suspicion. In 1914, the German Kaiser commenting on the forces impelling the war, wrote Britain had skillfully maneuvered affairs to entrap and annihilate them (Outbreak of the World War: German Documents Collected by Karl Kautsky, in KOT, 848-849). Huda Shaarawi, traveling in Paris in 1914 notes anti-German sentiments from a French citizen who based them on conflict between the nations (Non-European’s View of the Start of World War I, KOT CD, 450). French leader Georges Clemenceau writing in retrospect on the causes of WWI, documents Germany’s nationalist literature and dogma arguing that Germany bears the guilt (Georges Clemenceau Presents the French Demands at the Paris Peace Conference, KOT CD, 454-455). National allegiances led to different interpretations on the causes of WWI. Lasting four years, the war brought galling numbers of deaths as a total of about ten million soldiers died (Costanzo, 2, 13, 09). With nations looking out for their own protection WWI lasting from 1914-1918, emerged continuing nationalist viewpoints and resulting in horrific destruction of human life.

Despite the devastation of WWI, nationalist self-interest and the idea of the nation’s racial superiority developed in some European nations. In 1922, Benito Mussolini gained leadership in Italy (Costanzo, 2, 20, 09). His piece The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism, notes the established Fascist doctrine gave a “new way of life for Italy” (Mussolini, KOT CD, 473). It notes Fascism did not believe permanent peace was attainable. Rather, in establishing humanity, war was the only force which could bring out the finest. Clearly, Italian leadership promoted a singular viewpoint glorifying warfare as a purifying process. In Germany, Adolf Hitler a rising political figure, spoke against WWI’s peace treaty claiming it sought to eliminate their people and called for a nationalist German movement (The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, in KOT, 901). His statement demonstrates a one-sided outlook and evokes the nationalist principles of total national allegiance. He also advocated for the racial superiority of the Aryan. In Mein Kampf, Hitler argued human races ought to follow the natural order of procreating within their own race (Hitler, 311). This would preserve the superior human races from polluting with inferior ones; the Aryans being the former and the Jews the latter (Hitler, 311, 313, 315). The 1935 German propaganda film Triumph of the Will, notes the same ideas (Riefenstahl, 1933). While addressing a group of German youth Hitler pronounces, “Germany it is the future, present and past” (Riefenstahl, 1935). It is a blatant call to view the country as targets for their lives and energy. In another scene, a different German leader proclaimed that those people who do not guard the purity of the race will perish (Riefenstahl, 1935). Paramount to their nation’s survival was maintaining the purity of the Aryan race. This rhetoric of racial purity led Hitler to demand and occupy the Czechoslovakian territory populated with a majority of Germanic peoples in 1938 (Neville Chamberlain Defends the Policy of Appeasement, KOT CD, 469). Germany and Russia signed a non-aggression pact in 1939, and Hitler announced their mutual goal to, “re-distribute the world” and his initial steps to exterminate Polish people and make space for the Germans (Adolf Hitler: The Obersalzberg Speech, KOT CD, 500). World War II had begun.

While the first Great War brought devastation, the Second World War, 1939 to 1945, surpassed the first on the battlefront and through racial purges. The amount of civilian casualties roughly equaled the total number of military deaths at about fifteen million each (KOT, 960). If deaths directly related to the war are included about forty million people died worldwide (KOT, 960). Additionally, mass murders based on race wrought further destruction. Hitler’s anti-Jewish rhetoric instigated a campaign to exterminate them and other “inferior” humans. Kurt Gerstein, a German Storm Trooper at Belsen in 1942, described the babies, children, youth and adults hauled in by trains to be gassed to death (Pius XII and the Third Reich: A Documentation, in KOT, 962-963). Slavs in Russian and Poland were also killed (KOT, 960). Elie Wiesel a fifteen year old Jewish youth was deported with his family and community to German concentration camps where he saw crematory ovens killing away (Wiesel, 13, 30, 31). By the end of the war, approximately six million Jews were murdered (KOT, 960). Thus not only did the military campaigns wage war against soldiers, civilians and landscape, but also the German machine conducted a sophisticated plan of ethnic extermination.

After 1945, the mid and late 20th century witnessed other evidences of nationalism through the Cold War and nationalist strife in Yugoslavia. Post-war negotiations between the western powers and Russia brought their differences to the forefront. In 1947, United States President Harry Truman expressed the United States would economically and monetarily aid any country against imposing nations to maintain its liberty (A Decade of American Foreign Policy: Basic Documents, 1941-1949, in KOT, 982). This concept was practically applied through the Marshall Plan of 1948 which gave financial aid to rebuild Europe. The Soviet Union wary and seeking to protect itself installed subservient Communist governments and monetary aid to Eastern European countries (Costanzo, 3, 4, 09). Distinct national interests led to the Cold War, a period where political relations were damaged.

In the l990’s, the Balkans region suffered further devastation due to nationalist sentiments. Organized since WWI as Yugoslavia, the region hosted several national groups (Costanzo 3, 11, 09). When Milosevic gained power over the Serbian region within Yugoslavia, he espoused nationalist ideals which created tensions with other ethnic groups (Costanzo 3, 13, 09). Croatia and Slovenia declared independence from the government in 1990 (KOT, 1014). However Milosevic turned out the country’s army against Croatia because it housed a solid Serbian group and possessed natural resources (Costanzo 3, 13, 09). The turmoil eventually extended over dominating Bosnia-Herzegovina, which bore geographical and resource importance to each national entity (Costanzo, 3, 13, 09) By the time the international community intervened in 1995, the Serbs had engaged in “ethnic cleansing” (Costanzo, 3, 13, 09). In the town of Srebrenica the Serbs had killed eight thousand males (Costanzo, 3, 13, 09).

To conclude, from the 1870s to the late 19th century nationalism led to horrific destruction. It brought murder to Africa, two World Wars, political tensions, and ethnic warfare in Yugoslavia. Through nationalist ideals imperialism and racial inequality led to decimation of countries and human life.